Month: December 2015

Ford Models 1995 Workshop Repair & Service Manual ☆COMPLETE & INFORMATIVE for DIY REPAIR☆

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* COMPLETE, Absolutely No Missing Pages!
* Official Service INFORMATION You Can Count On!
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This high QUALITY official manual for Ford 1995 Models is 100 percents COMPLETE and INTACT, no MISSING, CORRUPT pages, sections to freak you out! This manual is exactly as described.

1995 Ford Aerostar
1995 Ford Bronco
1995 Ford Cargo
1995 Ford Econoline
1995 Ford Explorer
1995 Ford F-& B-Series
1995 Ford F-Series
1995 Ford F-Super Duty
1995 Ford L-Series
1995 Ford Pre-Delivery
1995 Ford Villager
1995 Ford Windstar

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CUSTOMER SATISFACTION: If there is ANY kind of problem with the item you purchased, just drop a quick email. Within HOURS the issue shall be taken care of.

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This highly detailed workshop service repair manual for download contains virtually everything you will ever need to repair, maintain, rebuild, refurbish or restore Your Ford Models 1995 (ALL MODELS ARE COVERED). All diagnostic and repair procedures and gives you access to the same information that professional technicians and mechanics have. You can view and print out the complete repair procedures with this workshop service repair manual Download – you do not need to be skilled with a computer.

EXCERPTS:
Group 07: TRANSMISSION
² SECTION 07-01A: Transmission, Automatic, E4OD
² SECTION 07-01B: Transmission, Automatic, C6
² SECTION 07-01C: Transmission, Automatic, 4R70W
² SECTION 07-02: Transmission, Automatic, Cooling
² SECTION 07-05: Transmission, Automatic, External Controls
² SECTION 07-14A: Transmission Range (TR) Sensor
² SECTION 07-14B: Park/Neutral Position (PNP) Switch
SECTION 07-01C: Transmission, Automatic, 4R70W
VEHICLE APPLICATION
E-150 Equipped with 5.0L Engines
² DESCRIPTION AND OPERATION
² DIAGNOSIS AND TESTING
² IN-VEHICLE SERVICE
² REMOVAL
² DISASSEMBLY
² DISASSEMBLY AND ASSEMBLY OF SUBASSEMBLIES
Transmission Fluid Drain and Fill Procedure
Normal maintenance and lubrication requirements do not necessitate periodic automatic transmission fluid changes. If a major service, such as a clutch, band, bearing, etc., is required, it will have to be removed for service. At this time, the torque converter (7902), transmission fluid cooler (7A095) and oil cooler inlet tube (7A030) and oil cooler tube (7A031) must be thoroughly flushed to remove any dirt. When used under continuous or severe conditions, the transmission and torque converter should be drained and refilled with fluid as specified.
CAUTION:
Use of a fluid other than specified could result in transmission malfunction and/or failure.
Refer to the Vehicle Certification Label affixed to the LH front door lock face panel or door pillar for the transmission code.
When filling a dry transmission and torque converter, refer to «Specifications» for capacity. Check the fluid level.
Procedures for partial drain and refill, due to in-vehicle service operation, are as follows:
1. Raise vehicle on a hoist or jackstands. Refer to «Section 00-02».
2. Place drain pan under transmission.
3. Loosen oil pan retaining bolts and drain fluid from transmission.
4. When fluid has drained to level of pan flange, remove rest of pan bolts working from the RH side, and allow it to drop and drain slowly.
5. When all fluid has drained from transmission, remove and thoroughly clean transmission oil pan (7A194).
6. Place a oil pan to case gasket (7A191) on transmission oil pan, and install transmission oil pan on transmission.
7. Lower vehicle.
8. Fill transmission to proper level with Motorcraft MERCON® Multi-Purpose Automatic Transmission Fluid E6AZ-19582 or MERCON® equivalent meeting Ford specification ESR-M2C163-AZ.

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Fiat Uno 1983-1995 Workshop Repair & Service Manual (COMPLETE & INFORMATIVE for DIY REPAIR) ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆

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* COMPLETE, Absolutely No Missing Pages!
* Official Service INFORMATION You Can Count On!
* Customer Satisfaction GUARANTEED!

This high QUALITY official manual for Fiat Uno 1983-1995 is 100 percents COMPLETE and INTACT, no MISSING, CORRUPT pages, sections to freak you out! This manual is exactly as described. It is in the cross-platform PDF document format so that it works like a charm on all kinds of devices.

FORMAT: PDF
LANGUAGE: English
SIZE/PAGE: 304 Pages
OS: Windows/Mac OS X/Linux/Android/iOS

INSTANT DELIVERY: A download link will be sent to you instantly after payment. Simply click on the link and save it to your computer. You can use this Manual as long as you wish with no restrictions.

CUSTOMER SATISFACTION: If there is ANY kind of problem with the item you purchased, just drop a quick email. Within HOURS the issue shall be taken care of.

PRINTABLE MANUAL WITH DIAGRAMS: Just print the manual out and start to work. You can also use the manual with your Tablet/Laptop in your garage.

REFUND/EXCHANGE POLICY: We sell high QUALITY products only. However if you encounter any problems with the item you purchased, another replacement link will be sent to you. If we’re at fault, you will get 100 percents refund.

Buy ☆THE BEST MANUAL ON THE INTERNET☆ from responsible seller and get instant download now without uncertainty or surprise.

This highly detailed workshop service repair manual for download contains virtually everything you will ever need to repair, maintain, rebuild, refurbish or restore Fiat Uno 1983-1995. All diagnostic and repair procedures and gives you access to the same information that professional technicians and mechanics have. You can view and print out the complete repair procedures with this workshop service repair manual Download – you do not need to be skilled with a computer.

EXCERPTS:
Flywheel
26 Check the clutch mating surface of the flywheel. If it is deeply scored (due to failure to
renew a worn driven plate) then it may be possible to have it surface ground provided
the thickness of the flywheel is not reduced too much.
27 If lots of tiny cracks are visible on the surface of the flywheel then this will be due to
overheating caused by slipping the clutch or “riding” the clutch pedal.
28 With a pre-engaged type of starter motor it is rare to find the teeth of the flywheel ring
gear damaged or worn but if they are, then the ring gear will have to be renewed.
29 To remove the ring gear, drill a hole between the roots of two teeth taking care not
to damage the flywheel and then split the ring with a sharp cold chisel.
30 The new ring gear must be heated to between 180 and 220ºC (356 and 428ºF) which is very hot, so if you do not have facilities for obtaining these temperatures, leave the job to your dealer or engine re-conditioner.
31 Where such facilities are available, then the ring gear should be either pressed or lightly tapped gently onto its register and left to cool naturally, when the contraction of the metal on cooling will ensure that it is a secure and permanent fit. Great care must be taken not to overheat the ring gear, as if this happens its temper will be lost. A clutch input shaft pilot bearing is not fitted on this engine.
Camshaft
32 Examine the camshaft bearings for wear, scoring or pitting. If evident then the bearings will have to be renewed. The three bearings are of different sizes and they can be removed and new ones fitted using a bolt, nut and distance pieces. When drawing a new bearing into position, make sure that the oil hole is correctly aligned with the one in the crankcase. The centre and rear bearings require reaming after fitting, the bearing at the timing chain end is supplied ready reamed
(photo).
33 The camshaft itself should show no marks or scoring on the journal or cam lobe surfaces. Where evident, renew the camshaft or have it reprofiled by a specialist reconditioner.
34 Check the teeth of the camshaft sprocket for wear. Renew the sprocket if necessary.
Cam followers
35 Examine the bearing surface of the cam followers which are in contact with the camshaft. Any indentations or cracks must be rectified by renewal. Clean sludge and dirt from the cam followers and check their fit in their bores. Side to side rock is unusual except at very high mileage.
Timing chain
36 Examine the teeth on both the crankshaft sprocket and the camshaft sprocket for wear.
Each tooth forms an inverted “V” with the sprocket periphery and if worn, the side of each tooth under tension will be slightly concave in shape when compared with the other side of the tooth, ie; one side of the inverted “V” will be concave when compared with the other. If any sign of wear is present the sprockets must be renewed.
37 Examine the links of the chain for side slackness and particularly check the self-tensioning links for freedom of movement. Renew the chain if any slackness is noticeable when compared with a new chain. It is a sensible precaution to renew the chain at about 60,000 miles (96,000 km) and at a lesser mileage if the engine is stripped down for a major overhaul.
Cylinder head
38 This is covered in Section 17. Rockers and rocker shaft
39 Thoroughly clean out the rocker shaft. As it acts as the oil passages for the valve gear, clean out the oil holes and make sure they are quite clear. Check the shaft for straightness by rolling it on a flat surface. If it is distorted, renew it.
40 The surface of the shaft should be free from any wear ridges caused by the rocker arms. If it is not, the shaft will have to be renewed. Blocked shaft oil holes often contribute to such wear.
41 Check the rocker arms for wear of the rocker bushes, for wear at the rocker arm face which bears on the valve stem, and for wear of the adjusting ball ended screws. Wear in the rocker arm bush can be checked by gripping the rocker arm tip and holding the rocker arm in place on the shaft, noting if there is any lateral rocker arm shake. If any shake is present, and the arm is very loose on the shaft, remedial action must be taken. It is recommended that a worn rocker arm be taken to your local FIAT agent or automobile engineering works to have the old bush drawn out and a new bush fitted (photo).
42 Check the tip of the rocker arm where it bears on the valve head, for cracking or serious wear on the case hardening. If none is present the rocker arm may be refitted. Check the pushrods for straightness by rolling them on a flat surface.

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Fiat Ulysse 1994-2008 Workshop Repair & Service Manual (COMPLETE & INFORMATIVE for DIY REPAIR) ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆

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* COMPLETE, Absolutely No Missing Pages!
* Official Service INFORMATION You Can Count On!
* Customer Satisfaction GUARANTEED!

This high QUALITY official manual for Fiat Ulysse 1994-2008 is 100 percents COMPLETE and INTACT, no MISSING, CORRUPT pages, sections to freak you out! This manual is exactly as described.

MAKE: Fiat
MODEL: Ulysse (Eurovans) (2.0 16V-16V JTD, 2.2 16V JTD, 3.0 24V V6)
YEAR: 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
LANGUAGE: EN/DE/ES/FR/IT/NL/PT

INSTANT DELIVERY: A download link will be sent to you instantly after payment. Simply click on the link and save it to your computer. You can use this Manual as long as you wish with no restrictions.

CUSTOMER SATISFACTION: If there is ANY kind of problem with the item you purchased, just drop a quick email. Within HOURS the issue shall be taken care of.

PRINTABLE MANUAL WITH DIAGRAMS: Just print the manual out and start to work. You can also use the manual with your Tablet/Laptop in your garage.

REFUND/EXCHANGE POLICY: We sell high QUALITY products only. However if you encounter any problems with the item you purchased, another replacement link will be sent to you. If we’re at fault, you will get 100 percents refund.

Buy ☆THE BEST MANUAL ON THE INTERNET☆ from responsible seller and get instant download now without uncertainty or surprise.

This highly detailed workshop service repair manual for download contains virtually everything you will ever need to repair, maintain, rebuild, refurbish or restore Your Fiat Ulysse 1994-2008 (ALL MODELS ARE COVERED). All diagnostic and repair procedures and gives you access to the same information that professional technicians and mechanics have. You can view and print out the complete repair procedures with this workshop service repair manual Download – you do not need to be skilled with a computer.

EXCERPTS:
SUPPLY / EXPANSION TANK
In addition to supplying the circuit, the coolant reservoir absorbs the variations in the volume of the coolant as the temperature of the engine varies.
A special calibrated valve in the pressurised cap assures the following:
– emergence of air from the circuit collected by the pipe leading from thermostat.
– air intake when the circuit contains a vacuum (due to engine cooling).
RADIATOR
It consists of a radiant mass and two side tanks for the intake and outlet of coolant.
The radiator pipes and fins are aluminium, the tanks are plastic.
WATER PUMP
It is the centrifugal type with vanes secured to the crankcase and operated directly through the timing belt.
THERMOSTAT
Fitted to the rear of the cylinder head and performs the function of maintaining the engine at optimum temperature:
· with temperature < 89 ± 2°C the thermostat valve (closed) directs coolant directly toward the water pump. · with the temperature > 89 ± 2°C the thermostatic valve starts to open until it is completely open at 101°C, directing the flow of coolant toward the radiator.
The engine coolant temperature sensor connected to the Engine Management Node is fitted on the thermostat casing.
ULYSSE 2.0 16v INTRODUCTION
DESCRIPTION
The cooling circuit is forced circulation type via a centrifugal pump.
The circuit is sealed and consists of the following parts:
– radiant mass (engine cooling).
– supply reservoir.
– recirculation pump.
– thermostat.
– passenger compartment heating radiator.
– connecting pipes and hoses.
Engine coolant temperature control
There are three-speed cooling fans to increase the heat dissipation capacity of the radiator.
The cooling fans are controlled directly by the engine management node which, depending on the temperature of the engine coolant:
– controls the cooling fans via the fan control interface;
– with the engine coolant temperature above the recommended level, lights up the warning light in the instrument panel;
The maximum pressure for the engine cooling circuit is 1.4 bar at 118°C.
Composition
– Versions with automatic transmission
The engine cooling system comprises the elements illustrated in the diagram below.
1. Radiator.
2. Supply reservoir/expansion tank.
3. Pressurized cap.
4. Engine oil/water heat exchanger.
5. Water pump.
6. Thermostat unit.
7. Automatic heating radiator.
8. Radiator bleed screw.
– Versions with automatic transmission
On versions with AL4 automatic transmission, the engine cooling system differs compared with versions with manual transmission through the presence of the elements illustrated below.
1. Water/oil heat exchanger (fitted on the automatic transmission).
2. Heat exchanger water inlet pipe.
3. Heat exchanger water outlet pipe.

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Fiat Tipo, Tempra 1988-1996 Workshop Repair & Service Manual (COMPLETE & INFORMATIVE for DIY REPAIR) ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆

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* COMPLETE, Absolutely No Missing Pages!
* Official Service INFORMATION You Can Count On!
* Customer Satisfaction GUARANTEED!

This high QUALITY official manual for Fiat Tipo, Tempra 1988-1996 is 100 percents COMPLETE and INTACT, no MISSING, CORRUPT pages, sections to freak you out! This manual is exactly as described. It is in the cross-platform PDF document format so that it works like a charm on all kinds of devices.

FORMAT: PDF
LANGUAGE: English
OS: Windows/Mac/Linux

Fiat Tipo, Tempra 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

DO AVOID THE CHEAP, INCOMPLETE, INFERIOR MANUALS AVAILABLE FOR A COUPLE OF BUCKS! YOU GET WHAT YOU PAY FOR. DO IT RIGHT THE FIRST TIME; CHOOSE THE ONLY MANUAL YOU WILL EVER NEED!

INSTANT DELIVERY: A download link will be sent to you instantly after payment. Simply click on the link and save it to your computer. You can use this Manual as long as you wish with no restrictions.

CUSTOMER SATISFACTION: If there is ANY kind of problem with the item you purchased, just drop a quick email. Within HOURS the issue shall be taken care of.

PRINTABLE MANUAL WITH DIAGRAMS: Just print the manual out and start to work. You can also use the manual with your Tablet/Laptop in your garage.

REFUND/EXCHANGE POLICY: We sell high QUALITY products only. However if you encounter any problems with the item you purchased, another replacement link will be sent to you. If we’re at fault, you will get 100 percents refund.

Buy ☆THE BEST MANUAL ON THE INTERNET☆ from responsible seller and get instant download now without uncertainty or surprise.

This highly detailed workshop service repair manual for download contains virtually everything you will ever need to repair, maintain, rebuild, refurbish or restore Your Fiat Tipo, Tempra 1988-1996 (ALL MODELS ARE COVERED). All diagnostic and repair procedures and gives you access to the same information that professional technicians and mechanics have. You can view and print out the complete repair procedures with this workshop service repair manual Download – you do not need to be skilled with a computer.

EXCERPTS:
AIR CONDITIONING (LATER MODELS)
5F. The air conditioning controls fitted as an optional extra to some later models of Tipo or Tempra are shown in illustration 5F.
TEMPERATURE CONTROL
• Use the TEMP button to select the cabin temperature.
• Each time the TEMP button (up or down arrow) is pressed the temperature will increase or decrease by 1°C.
• If the temperature displayed exceeds 32°C or is lower than 18°C the words HI or LO will appear on the display.
• When the ECON button is selected the temperature will remain static until the outside temperature drops sharply or until the ECON button is switched off.
AIR VOLUME CONTROL
• Press the AIR left or right arrow buttons to increase or decrease the air flow into the passenger compartment.
AIR DISTRIBUTION CONTROL
5G. • Press the demisting button 1 to demist the windscreen and side windows.
• Select button 2 to direct the air flow to the passenger face vents.
• Press button 3 to direct the air flow towards the footwell and face vents.
• Selecting button 4 will direct the air flow to the floor vents.
AIR RECIRCULATION SWITCH
• When the air recirculation button (illustration 5G, 5) is selected no outside air enters the passenger compartment.
AUTOMATIC OPERATION
• When both LEDs next to the AUTO button light up, the system is fully automatic.
• When only one LED lights up the system is in manual operation.
• When the OFF button is pressed the LED next to it will light up and all of the systems other LEDs will turn off, indicating that the air control system has been switched off.

6. LIGHTS AND INDICATORS
DIRECTION INDICATORS AND REAR FOG LIGHT
SWITCH
The lights operate when the key is at the MAR position. 6A. The symbols on the stalk all illuminate when the side or headlights have been switched on.
• Turn the left-hand column stalk’s knurled switch from O to C. The panel indicator sidelight display will illuminate.
LOW BEAM HEADLIGHTS
• Turn the knurled switch from position C to B, for low beam headlight.
HIGH BEAM HEADLIGHTS
• When the knurled switch pointer is at position B, pull the stalk towards the steering wheel to switch the headlights to high beam.
• The panel full headlight beam LED will light up.
• Flick the stalk towards the steering wheel again to switch off the high beam headlights (the low beam headlights will remain on).
REAR FOG-GUARD LIGHTS
• Turn the knurled switch to B (low beam) and then press the rear fog switch A at the tip of the stalk to turn the rear fog-light on.
DIRECTION INDICATORS
Move the left-hand column stalk (from its centre position): • Up = right turn. • Down = left turn.
The panel direction indicator light flashes when the direction indicators are operating. The stalk returns to the centre position after completing the turn.
WINDSCREEN WASHER/WIPER CONTROLS
6B: WINDSCREEN WASHER/WIPER (FRONT)
The washer and wiper only operate when the key is positioned at MAR.
When the windscreen washer stalk is positioned at:
• 0 – The windscreen wiper is off.
• 1 – Intermittent operation (adjustable by turning switch C, from II to III).
• 2 – Continuous high speed operation.

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Fiat Stilo 2001-2007 Workshop Repair & Service Manual (COMPLETE & INFORMATIVE for DIY REPAIR) ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆

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* COMPLETE, Absolutely No Missing Pages!
* Official Service INFORMATION You Can Count On!
* Customer Satisfaction GUARANTEED!

This high QUALITY official manual for Fiat Stilo 2001-2007 is 100 percents COMPLETE and INTACT, no MISSING, CORRUPT pages, sections to freak you out! This manual is exactly as described.

MAKE: Fiat
MODEL: Stilo (1.2 16V, 1.4 16V, 1.6 16V, 1.8 16V, 1.9 JTD 8-16V, 2.4 20V)
YEAR: 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
LANGUAGE: EN/DE/ES/FR/IT/NL/PT

INSTANT DELIVERY: A download link will be sent to you instantly after payment. Simply click on the link and save it to your computer. You can use this Manual as long as you wish with no restrictions.

CUSTOMER SATISFACTION: If there is ANY kind of problem with the item you purchased, just drop a quick email. Within HOURS the issue shall be taken care of.

PRINTABLE MANUAL WITH DIAGRAMS: Just print the manual out and start to work. You can also use the manual with your Tablet/Laptop in your garage.

REFUND/EXCHANGE POLICY: We sell high QUALITY products only. However if you encounter any problems with the item you purchased, another replacement link will be sent to you. If we’re at fault, you will get 100 percents refund.

Buy ☆THE BEST MANUAL ON THE INTERNET☆ from responsible seller and get instant download now without uncertainty or surprise.

This highly detailed workshop service repair manual for download contains virtually everything you will ever need to repair, maintain, rebuild, refurbish or restore Your Fiat Stilo 2001-2007 (ALL MODELS ARE COVERED). All diagnostic and repair procedures and gives you access to the same information that professional technicians and mechanics have. You can view and print out the complete repair procedures with this workshop service repair manual Download – you do not need to be skilled with a computer.

EXCERPTS:
STILO 1.2 16v INTRODUCTION – POWER UNIT SUPPORTS
CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
The power unit supports have a structural connecting function for the power unit and the bodyshell.
They are designed to support the weight of the power unit and the loads from the torque transmitted by the engine.
Each rubber has a rubber – metal mounting which is designed to dampen the vibrations produced by the engine, thereby reducing most of the vibrations transmitted to the bodyshell.
Type
This is a centre of gravity type power unit support, comprising two mountings plus a reaction connecting rod that acts as a rod with new supports aligned on one axis for the centre of gravity thereby producing reaction forces.
System details
The adoption of this system has made it possible to reduce noise by about 2 Db.
This had led to advantages, especially in terms of driveability and comfort inside the passenger compartment.
1, Timing side support
2, Gearbox side support
3, Reaction link
STILO 1.2 16v INTRODUCTION – ENGINE CRANKCASE
CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
The crankcase is made of of high mechanical strength cast iron.
The crankshaft is supported by five main bearings.
The cylinders are formed directly in the crankcase and sorted into three size categories plus one oversize.
Special channels in the crankcase walls carry coolant and lubrication fluid.
LOWER CRANKCASE T2, SPECIFICATIONS
The lower crankcase is made from die-cast luminium alloy with cast iron main bearing caps.
The machining of the supports and main bearing caps is carried out together with the crankcase.
The matching with the upper crankcase is achieved by means of bolts and locating dowels which guarantee the precision of the fitting.
There is a bead of sealant between the two crankcases to prevent oil leaks.
Composition
The upper and lower crankcases are illustrated in the diagram below.
STILO 1.2 16v INTRODUCTION – CYLINDER HEAD(S)
CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
The cylinder head is one-piece in aluminium alloy.
The four valves per cylinder are fitted in the guides, operated by two camshafts by means of hydraulic tappets.
The valve guides are an interference fit in the cylinder head seats.
A special reamer is used to produce the correct inner diameter after fitting.
The camshafts are fitted in two built-in camshaft housings, without a tappet cover.
The gasket between cylinder head and crankcsae is made out of aramidic fibre and the head does not require retightening throughout the engine life.
STILO 1.2 16v PISTONS AND CONNECTING RODS 1028H
CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS
Connecting rods
The connecting rods are made from spheriod cast iron. The gudgeon pins are the fixed type and are matched with the connecting rod.
COMPOSITION
The connecting rod comprises a casing or shank, with a rectilinear axis, which rigidly connects the small end, hinged to the gudgeon pin with a copper alloy bush in between and the big end, hinged on the crank pin with bearings in between.
The big end is divided into two sections for fitting reasons: the fixed part is in one piece with the casing and the moving part is connected to the former by studs.
Since the connecting rod is subjected to compression and combined compressive and bending stress forces it tends to become distorted; as a result the connecting rod body should be made in such a way as to combine lightness with maximum resistance and is therefore contructed with a double T section.
The connecting rod is the main element connecting the piston with the crankshaft.
PISTONS
The pistons are made from silicon aluminium alloy and are divided into three size categories with an arrow stamped on the crown to indicate engine rotation direction to ensure correct installation.
COMPOSITION
The piston comprises two parts:
Head (1) or area of the piston rings, with a diameter slightly smaller than that of the cylinder to allow the thermal dilation of the metal.
Skirt (2) or guide for the small end that supports the side thrust. The skirt contains two studs for housing the gudgeon pin.
These pistons contain a steel ring incorporated through fusion between the skirt and the head which has the task of preventing the expansion of the skirt in the direction transverse to the gudgeon pin axis.
OPERATION
It is the component that receives the engine impulse directly from the pressure of the combustion gas, via the connecting rod, transmitting the drive force to the crankshaft.
It should meet the following requirements:
high mechanical resistance that allows it to support the explosion pressures (~35 kg/cm2) and the dynamic stresses;
good resistance to heat and to wear;
good thermal conductivity, to transmit the heat from the hot area to the cold area underneath;
lightness and quiet operation when hot and when cold.
For the specific pressure at the skirt to be low in the working direction and consequently for low consumption for both the skirt and the cylinder liners/bores, the gudgeon pin must be offset (by about 3% of the reaming) in relation to the piston axis, on the opposite side to the direction of rotation.

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